Event-based Prospective Memory Research Articles

From attentional fluctuations to intentional fluctuations? Monitoring behavior and intraindividual variability in time-based prospective memory.

In sharp contrast to event-based prospective memory (PM), dynamics of (re)allocation of attention between the ongoing and PM tasks have been much less investigated in time-based PM tasks. We propose an in-depth examination of attention allocation in a time-based PM task by jointly analyzing multiple indicators of time-monitoring behavior, net and time-structured intraindividual variability (IIV) in ongoing-task reaction times (OT RTs), and task performance. Results from dynamic structural equation modeling in a lifespan sample of 198 adults (19-86 years) revealed that larger fluctuations in OT RTs (net IIV) predicted poorer OT performance, but fostered a more efficient pattern of time-monitoring behavior (i.e., checking a clock more frequently and strategically, and slowing OT RTs during the PM response window) that, in turn, enhanced PM. Conversely, greater inertia in OT RTs (time-structured IIV) led to fewer clock-checks and poorer PM performance. Focusing attention on time monitoring to enhance PM performance did not detrimentally affect OT accuracy. Instead, participants showed a speed-accuracy tradeoff to optimize both OT and PM accuracies by slowing their OT RTs during the PM response window. This study therefore shows that two concomitant aspects of IIV (net and time-structured IIV) not only predicted time-monitoring behavior, but also OT and PM accuracies differentially, hence advocating for the necessity to consider both aspects of IIV and time monitoring together to better understand attention allocation policies in time-based PM tasks. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

An evaluation of the moderating effects of routine and busyness on the relationship between prospective memory and everyday functioning in older persons with HIV disease

ABSTRACT Introduction People living with HIV (PLWH) often experience difficulties in everyday functioning, which can arise in part from deficits in the strategic/executive aspects of prospective memory (PM). Using Suchy’s Contextually Valid Executive Assessment (ConVExA) framework, this study sought to determine whether the contextual factors of busyness and routine moderate the relationship between the strategic/executive aspects of PM and everyday functioning in older PLWH. Methods Participants in this cross-sectional analysis were 145 PLWH aged 50 years and older who had completed the Martin and Park Environmental Demands (MPED) questionnaire of routine and busyness, the performance-based Cambridge Test of Prospective Memory, and self-report measures of activities of daily living (ADLs) and cognitive symptoms in daily life. Results Multiple regression analyses covarying for relevant comorbidities showed that higher levels of busyness – but not routine – were associated with more frequent cognitive symptoms in daily life. Neither busyness nor routine interacted with PM in association with cognitive symptoms. However, routine and a strategic/executive measure of PM interacted in predicting ADLs; specifically, the association between time-based PM and ADLs was stronger in persons with higher levels of routine in their daily lives. Parallel analyses with less executively-demanding event-based PM were null and small. Conclusions Overall, findings provided mixed – and unexpected – evidence for the associations between contextual factors (i.e. routine and busyness), everyday functioning, and PM in this sample of older adults with HIV disease. Results and clinical implications are interpreted and discussed in the framework of the ConVExA model.

Effect of transcranial direct current stimulation on prospective memory in healthy individuals: A double-blind randomized sham-controlled trial

Aim: Prospective memory (PM) has an immense role in the activities of daily living and deficits of PM are common in various neuropsychiatric disorders. Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a neuromodulatory technique that yields favorable outcomes yet only a few studies concerning PM with hindering results exist. The present double-blind cross-over randomized sham-controlled study aimed to assess the effect of a single-session of left-righr/sham tDCS over the prefrontal cortex on event-related PM in healthy individuals. Materials and Methods: 24 participants were administered a single session of 2 mA 20-minute left/right anodal or sham tDCS segregated by 7 days. An event-based PM task was utilized before and after tDCS every week to evaluate PM. Results: No effects of tDCS on PM were found. Conclusion: The present results argue against the effect of a single-session of tDCS over the prefrontal cortices on event-related PM. TDCS studies adopting divergent parameters are required.

Relationship Between Future Thinking and Prospective Memory in Alzheimer's Disease.

Future thinking and prospective memory are two cognitive processes oriented toward the future and reliant on the ability to envision oneself in future scenarios. We explored the connection between future thinking and prospective memory in individuals with Alzheimer's disease (AD). We invited both AD participants and control participants to engage in event-based prospective memory tasks (e.g., "please hand me this stopwatch when I inform you there are 10 minutes remaining") and time-based prospective memory tasks (e.g., "close the book you are working on in five minutes"). Additionally, we asked participants to engage in a future thinking task where they imagined upcoming events. Analysis revealed that AD participants exhibited lower performance in both prospective memory tasks and future thinking compared to the control group. Importantly, we identified significant positive correlations between the performance on event- and time-based prospective memory tasks and future thinking abilities among AD participants. These findings underscore the connection between the decline in both prospective memory domains and the ability to envision future events in individuals with AD. Our results also shed light on the challenges AD individuals face when trying to project themselves into the future to mentally pre-experience upcoming events.

Assessing time-based prospective memory online: A comparison study between laboratory-based and web-based testing.

Prospective memory (PM, i.e., the ability to remember and perform future intentions) is assessed mainly within laboratory settings; however, in the last two decades, several studies have started testing PM online. Most part of those studies focused on event-based PM (EBPM), and only a few assessed time-based PM (TBPM), possibly because time keeping is difficult to control or standardise without experimental control. Thus, it is still unclear whether time monitoring patterns in online studies replicate typical patterns obtained in laboratory tasks. In this study, we therefore aimed to investigate whether the behavioural outcome measures obtained from the traditional TBPM paradigm in the laboratory-accuracy and time monitoring-are comparable with an online version in a sample of 101 younger adults. Results showed no significant difference in TBPM performance in the laboratory versus online setting, as well as no difference in time monitoring. However, we found that participants were somewhat faster and more accurate at the ongoing task during the laboratory assessment, but those differences were not related to holding an intention in mind. The findings suggest that, although participants seemed generally more distracted when tested remotely, online assessment yielded similar results in key temporal characteristics and behavioural performance as for the laboratory assessment. The results are discussed in terms of possible conceptual and methodological implications for online testing.

How do the cognitive processes matter in the event-based preschoolers' prospective memory?

Prospective memory (PM) is the ability to remember to perform an intended action at a specific future moment. The current study examined the impact of age, task focality, and cue salience on PM in children aged 2 to 6 years, based on the multiprocess theory of PM and the executive framework of PM development. Additionally, the study explored the relationship between various cognitive abilities and their association with PM performance. A total of 224 preschool-aged children, aged 2-6, engaged in event-based PM tasks with varying cognitive demands. The tasks were either focal or nonfocal, with salient or nonsalient cues. Additionally, individual differences in cognitive abilities were measured. The results support previous indications that even very young children can successfully complete event-based PM tasks. The accuracy of PM display improved with age, especially between the ages of 3 and 4. Better performance was observed in focal PM tasks compared to nonfocal PM tasks. Additionally, preschoolers' PM performance correlated with various cognitive abilities, including fluid intelligence, retrospective memory, inhibitory control, working memory, and language ability. These correlations varied depending on the child's age and the task's nature. For both focal and nonfocal PM tasks, cognitive abilities partially mediated the relationship between age and PM performance. In summary, this study comprehensively explores the specific roles played by age and fundamental cognitive abilities in event-based PM performance among preschool-aged children.

Emotion and prospective memory: effects of emotional targets and contexts.

Event-based prospective memory (PM) refers to the ability to remember to perform a delayed and intended action when an event is encountered in the future. Whether emotional targets promote PM performance is still controversial. The reason for these inconsistent findings may be related to the degree of target arousal and context valence (the valence of ongoing task trials) in the previous studies. This study aimed to investigate the separate and combined effects of target valence, arousal, and context valence on event-based PM through two experiments. The results showed that the participants were faster and more accurate in responding to positive, negative, and high-arousal PM targets. Interestingly, an interaction effect of target valence, arousal, and context valence was observed, implying that their individual effects on PM performance cannot be understood in isolation. These findings demonstrate that positive, negative, and high-arousal PM targets can enhance PM performance. In addition, the results provided support for both the emotion enhancement account and the emotion-saliency account, depending upon whether the valence of the PM target matched or did not match the valence of the context. Moreover, context valence can modulate the effect of arousal on PM across different target valences.

Exploring the Relationship between Emotional Valence and Prospective Memory Metamemory in Younger and Older Adults

Prospective memory (PM) plays a crucial role in daily autonomy. Metamemory and emotional valence have both been shown to influence PM performance in younger and older adults. However, when considered together, the relationship between emotional valence, metamemory, and PM has not been examined yet, especially whether metamemory PM representations develop with task experience (i.e., before versus after performing a task). We collected data from 25 younger and 19 older adults using an event-based PM task with emotional cues (positive, negative, or neutral). Results revealed that younger adults’ predictions underestimated performance for neutral and negative cues. After performing the task, they showed more accurate representations for neutral cues, indicating that they monitored their representations. Older adults’ predictions overestimated performance for negative PM cues, and they did not modify representations after performing the task. Thus, we do not find evidence that older adults are able to coherently monitor their PM representations. These findings highlight the importance of understanding PM representations, especially in older adults, as they may lead to less strategy use and more impaired PM performance in negative everyday situations.

Effect of time stress on event-based prospective memory with several prospective targets

Effect of time stress on event-based prospective memory with several prospective targets

Time-Based and Event-Based Prospective Memory in Mild Cognitive Impairment and Alzheimer's Disease Patients: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.

Prospective memory (PM) is the ability to remember to perform planned actions in a future moment and it is of fundamental importance for an independent and autonomous lifestyle from development to late adulthood. Deficits in episodic memory and executive functions, which are involved in PM are characteristic features of mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and Alzheimer's disease (AD). Considering that the number of older adults is drastically increasing over the next decades, it is of great interest to understand how PM decline in healthy older adults and patients with different degree of cognitive decline. The present meta-analysis included 46 studies investigating PM performance in AD patients (17 studies) and people with MCI (24 studies); 5 studies included both clinical conditions in the same article. The 46 studies contributed a total of 63 independent samples and 129 effect sizes from 4668 participants (2115 patients and 2553 controls). Unlike previous reviews of the literature, our results with a larger and updated sample of studies confirmed lower PM abilities in AD compared to MCI and controls, although we did not observe conclusive differences between event-based and time-based PM in patients. Surprisingly, PM deficits shown by MCI and AD patients have decreased across years, in parallel to a reduction of the evidence of publication bias and an increase in the number of observations per task. We propose the use of more reliable research designs as one plausible explanation for the reduction of PM impairments.

5 Longer Prospective Memory Delays Independently Predict Severity of Functional Decline in TBI

Objective:Prospective memory (PM) tasks are common in everyday life and have been implicated in optimal daily functioning. However, less is known about the parameters of PM tasks that most influence functional decline, as well as the domains of everyday functioning most sensitive to PM impairment. The present study sought to examine these questions in individuals with traumatic brain injury (TBI).Participants and Methods:Participants included 30 adults with chronic moderate-to-severe TBI who were at least one year removed from their injury (median [IQR] = 8.1 years [10.8]). Participants completed the Memory for Intentions Test (MIST), which is a 30-minute task that assesses time- and event-based PM with varying cue-intention delay length (2 versus 15 min) in the context of an ongoing task. Total scores were generated for each delay length and cue type. Additionally, participants completed a comprehensive neuropsychological battery, including assessments of processing speed, executive functions, attention, working memory, verbal fluency, and episodic learning and memory. Participants also completed questionnaires of self-reported cognitive and everyday functioning, including the Functional Behavior Profile (FBP), Prospective and Retrospective Memory Questionnaire (PRMQ) and a modified Lawton & Brody Instrumental Activities of Daily Living (IADL) Scale, which separately assessed 11 domains of everyday functioning.Results:Pearson’s r correlations revealed that total number of domains showing decline on the modified Lawton & Brody IADL scale was strongly correlated with MIST 15-min delay (MIST-15; r=-0.503, p=0.005), such that worse PM performance on long delay items was associated with more domains of IADL decline; this relationship was also reflected in the MIST Total Score (r=-0.389; p=0.033). No other MIST index was associated with IADL decline (ps>0.10). MIST-15 did not significantly correlate with any other measure of self-reported functioning (PRMQ, FBP; all ps>0.10), but was associated with specific declines in buying groceries (p=0.009), performing home repairs (p=0.021), shopping (p=0.033), and doing laundry (p=0.035). Relationships at a trend level included declines in housekeeping (p=0.05), managing finances (p=0.097), cooking (p=0.092), and taking medication (p=0.066). To determine specificity of the relationship between MIST-15 and everyday functioning, a linear regression was conducted using covariates that were significantly correlated with total number of domains of IADL decline (i.e., Selective Reminding Test total learning trials, CVLT-II Long Delay Free Recall, Symbol Digit Modalities Test total). This regression was statistically significant [F(4,24)=4.263; p=0.10; R2=0.415), and MIST-15 remained an independent predictor (p=0.047; R2 change=0.107).Conclusions:Results suggest that the ability to remember to carry out intended actions after longer delay periods may be uniquely related to severity of declines in everyday functioning. Longer PM delays place higher demands on both memory and executive processes, as the encoded intention must survive a longer decay wherein monitoring for the appropriate cue is extended, and likely better mimic PM tasks in daily life (e.g., remembering to pick up milk after the workday). In light of these findings, clinicians may seek to include brief trials of long delay PM tasks as part of a comprehensive battery to screen for functional decline.

Exploring Executive Functioning of Adults With Probable Developmental Coordination Disorder Using the Jansari Assessment of Executive Functions

ABSTRACT Many individuals with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) demonstrate executive functioning difficulties on standardized assessments, yet these difficulties have not been investigated using ecologically-valid measures. 26 adults with probable DCD (pDCD), and 26 typically developing (TD) adults completed selected background measures and the Jansari assessment of Executive Functions (JEF©). JEF© is an ecologically-valid measure that provides measures of Planning, Prioritization, Selective-Thinking, Creative-Thinking, Adaptive-Thinking, and Action-, Event- and Time-Based Prospective Memory. pDCD participants were impaired relative to TD participants, with difficulties in Planning, Action-, and Event-Based Prospective Memory. These findings are consistent with self-reported difficulty and provide avenues for research investigating intervention.

Daily Affect and Daily Prospective Memory in People after Stroke and Their Partners: The Moderating Role of Resting Heart Rate

Introduction: Experimental research suggests that affect may influence prospective memory performance, but real-life evidence on affect-prospective memory associations is limited. Moreover, most studies have examined the valence dimension of affect in understanding the influence of affect on cognitive performance in daily life, with insufficient consideration of the arousal dimension. To maximize ecological validity, the current study examined the relationships between daily affect and daily prospective memory using repeated daily assessments and the role of resting heart rate on these relationships. We examined both valence and arousal of daily affect by categorizing affect into four dimensions: high-arousal positive affect, low-arousal positive affect, high-arousal negative affect, and low-arousal negative affect. Method: We examined existing data collected from community-dwelling couples, of which at least one partner had a stroke history. The analytic sample included 111 adults (M_age = 67.46 years, SD = 9.64; 50% women) who provided 1,274 days of data. Among the participants, 58 were living with the effects of a stroke and 53 were partners. Participants completed daily event-based prospective memory tasks (in morning and/or evening questionnaires), reported daily affect in the evening, and wore a wrist-based Fitbit device to monitor resting heart rate over 14 consecutive days. Results: Results from multilevel models show that, within persons, elevated high-arousal negative affect was associated with worse daily prospective memory performance. In addition, lower resting heart rate attenuated the inverse association between high-arousal negative affect and lowered prospective memory performance. We did not find significant associations of high- or low-arousal positive affect and low-arousal negative affect with daily prospective memory. Discussion: Our findings are in line with the resource allocation model and the cue-utilization hypothesis in that high-arousal negative affect is detrimental to daily prospective memory performance. Lower resting heart rate may buffer individuals’ prospective memory performance from the influence of high-arousal negative affect. These findings are consistent with the neurovisceral integration model on heart-brain connections, highlighting the possibility that cardiovascular fitness may help maintain prospective memory into older adulthood.

Prospective memory: the combined impact of cognitive load and task focality

Prospective Memory (PM) entails a set of executive processes primarily associated with the activation of frontal and parietal regions. Both the number of PM-targets to be monitored (i.e. task load) and the relationship between the type of PM-targets and the ongoing (ONG) task (i.e. task focality) can impact executive monitoring and PM performance. In the present imaging study, we manipulated load and focality of an event-based PM task to test the hypothesis that common resources engage in situations requiring high levels of cognitive control: that is, in high-load (i.e. monitor multiple PM-targets) and non-focal conditions (i.e. monitor at the same time letters’ identity and color). We investigated monitoring-related and detection-related processes by assessing behavior and brain activity separately for ONG trials (monitoring) and PM-targets (detection). At the behavioral level, we found a significant interaction between load and focality during detection, with slowest reaction times for focal, high-load PM-targets. The imaging analyses of the detection phase revealed the activation of the left intraparietal sulcus in the high-load conditions. Both in the monitoring and the detection phases, we found overlapping effects of non-focality and low-load in the fusiform gyrus. Our results suggest that under low-load conditions, cognitive control operates via early selection mechanisms in the ventral occipito-temporal cortex. By contrast, high-load conditions entail control at later processing stages within the dorsal parietal cortex. We conclude that load and focality operate via different mechanisms, with the level of task load largely determining how cognitive control selects the most relevant information.

The role of emotional cues in event-based prospective memory

ObjectiveProspective memory (PM) refers to the ability to perform expected actions in the future. The purpose of this study is to investigate the role of stimuli with emotional content on the prospective memory, with particular attention to different age groups. MethodsStarting from an experimental paradigm used in a previous study (by Cona et al., 2015), we evaluated whether emotional cues (positive, negative, or neutral images) did influence a prospective memory task based on the event during the performance of an ongoing n-back task in three different age groups. ResultsA difference emerged between the three investigated groups indicating that positive emotional cues were remembered better than negative and neutral ones. In addition, older subjects resulted slower than others in responding to stimuli and showed the tendency to make more errors in the prospective memory task. ConclusionsAs hypothesized, a difference in the performance of the task appears as due to age. In general, the younger participants take the test more accurately (i.e., with fewer errors). This could be explained because the prospective memory deteriorates with increasing age. Behavioral results do not yet allow us to answer the research question on the role of emotional material in prospective memory; more research is needed to clarify these issues.

Time-Based and Event-Based Prospective Memory in Adults with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Virtual Week Investigation

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a complex developmental condition including persistent challenges with social communication, restricted interests, and repetitive behavior. Though prospective memory failures are commonly observed in ASD population it has been less studied among adults with ASD. Prospective memory (PM) refers to the execution of delayed intentions. There are contradictory findings of regular and irregular prospective memory task among autistic adults. The present study is an attempt to investigate prospective memory performance among adults with autism spectrum disorder using the Virtual Week board game. Virtual Week (Rendell & Craik, 2000) (3-day Version) is a computerized board game in which participants after rolling a die move token clockwise around the board. Each round of the board represents one virtual "day." Adults between 16 and 25 years of age who were diagnosed with ASD (N = 23) were compared with non-ASD (N = 26) adults. Analyses of variance were used to analyze the data. Results revealed that autistic adults as compared to normal adults showed poorer performance on time-based task than on event-based task. A significant difference was evident between regular and irregular prospective memory tasks across both tasks among autistic adults. Results also revealed that ASD difficulties are associated with the prospective component of the irregular task. Prospective memory failures are widely observed in ASD group, and have important implications for functional independence. The findings of this study provide insight into prospective memory challenges that adults with autism spectrum disorder face in a daily basis.

Prospective memory in early and established psychosis: An Indian perspective.

Individuals affected by psychosis often have deficits in several neurocognitive functions. Prospective memory (PM), the ability to remember to do things, is crucial for activities of daily living, social and occupational functioning, but very few studies have attempted to examine this domain of functioning in people with psychosis, particularly in India. A total of 71 patients with psychosis, (both early and established psychosis), and 140 age, gender and education-matched healthy controls were assessed using the Positive and Negative Symptom Scale, Hospital Anxiety and Depression scale, and Addenbrooke's Cognitive Examination. PM was assessed using the Cambridge Prospective Memory Test and the Prospective and Retrospective Memory Questionnaire (PRMQ). Group differences were evaluated using Mann-Whitney U-tests. Significantly greater cognitive deficits, higher anxiety and depression were evident in the psychosis group compared with controls. The psychosis group performed significantly poorer on both time- and event-based tests in CAMPROMPT than controls. These differences remained when controlling for age, education, general cognitive functioning and mood. The subjective measure of PM (PRMQ) did not differentiate the two groups. The PM performance of early and established psychosis patients was similar. Comparisons with cross-cultural data (PRMQ UK norms and CAMPROMPT and PRMQ Chinese data) revealed important differences in PM performance. Individuals with psychosis have significant deficits in both time- and event-based PM. CAMPROMPT emerged as a more sensitive PM measure compared with PRMQ. Results from cross-cultural comparisons underscore the need for cultural contextualization of assessments.

Benefits from prospective memory offloading depend on memory load and reminder type.

Prospective memory (PM) refers to the ability to remember to complete a task at the appropriate moment in the future. Past research has found reminders can improve PM performance in both laboratory and naturalistic settings, but few projects have examined the circumstances when and what types of reminders are most beneficial. Three experiments in the present study tested the influence of reminders in an event-based PM task under different cognitive loads. An additional study examined how effective reminders of different types were. In Experiments 1 (specific targets) and 2 (nonspecific targets), load was manipulated by having participants respond to a single (low load) or multiple (high load) targets. In Experiment 3, the association between target-action word pairs was manipulated by presenting strongly associated pairs (low load) or weakly associated pairs (high load). Experiment 4 used target-action word pairs and varied the type of reminder. Participants in the reminder conditions had target (Experiments 1 and 2), target and action (Experiment 3) or target and/or action (Experiment 4) reminders listed at the top of the screen throughout the PM task. Across the first 3 experiments, it was found that the benefit of reminders was greater under high load than low load conditions. Experiment 4 found that target-action reminders improved PM, while target-only or action-only reminders did not. Importantly, the improvements in PM from reminders occurred without cost to ongoing task performance. Together these results suggest that reminders can be beneficial for reducing PM failures, particularly under high load, without the potential downside of increased effort expenditure. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Effect of expectations and retention interval on prospective person memory and vigilance

ABSTRACT The present research examined the role of expectations, delay and ongoing task on prospective person memory. Participants (N = 561) studied six mock missing person posters and were told that they had either a low chance or a high chance of encountering the missing persons. Participants were told to press the ‘h’ key if one of the persons was encountered. Participants engaged in a grocery store task immediately after studying the posters or after a five-minute delay. The grocery store task included photographs of 44 individuals, including one of the ‘missing persons’. During the grocery store task, participants either engaged in an attention demanding ongoing activity (i.e. looking for four items from a shopping list) or were able to devote themselves solely to looking for the missing persons. Expectations of encounter increased both correct and incorrect sightings, effects that were more pronounced after the five-minute delay. The presence of the ongoing task had no significant effect on sighting rates. Results are discussed in terms of the multiprocess model [McDaniel, M. A., & Einstein, G. O. (2000). Strategic and automatic processes in prospective memory retrieval: A multiprocess framework. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 14(7), S127–S144 .] and the preparatory attention and memory process model [Smith, R. E. (2003). The cost of remembering to remember in event-based prospective memory: Investigating the capacity demands of delayed intention performance. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 29(3), 347–361.] of prospective memory. We also discuss applications of these findings to missing person investigations.

Prospective Memory Function Predicts Future Cognitive Decline and Incident Dementia.

This study aimed to test whether prospective memory (PM) was an early cognitive marker of future cognitive decline and incident dementia using longitudinal data spanning 8years from the Sydney Memory and Ageing Study. At baseline, 121 participants aged 72-91years were tested in PM using a validated PM task, Virtual Week, which included time- and event-based tasks presented with varying regularity. Responses were scored "Correct" if completed accurately and "Missed" if the target was not remembered at any time. Measures of cognition were taken at baseline and 2-year intervals over 8years. Dementia diagnoses were made by expert consensus panels using Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition criteria. Linear mixed models and Cox proportional hazards regression models were used to analyze the data, controlling for potential confounds. Both decreased PM accuracy and missed PM responses were associated with rate of cognitive decline measured by Mini-Mental State Examination over 8years and global cognitive decline over 4years. Risk of incident dementia increased with poorer baseline PM ability and missed responses. These effects remained significant after controlling for baseline cognition and were strongest for event-based and regular PM tasks. PM is a sensitive early marker of future cognitive decline and risk of incident dementia. PM tasks supported by spontaneous retrieval (event-based) and those with lower retrospective memory demands (regular tasks) function as particularly sensitive predictors. In other words, deficits in performing less effortful PM tasks best predicted cognitive decline. These findings may encourage clinicians to incorporate PM tasks in clinical assessments.